Contents • • • • • • 400 CE - 500 CE [ ] The discovery of a Brahmi label inscription reading Thambhaya Dhaanam is engraved on the soap stone reliquary datable to 2nd century BCE on Paleographical ground proves the fact that Telugu language predates the known conception in Andhra Pradesh. Primary sources are /Sanskrit inscriptions found in the region, in which Telugu places and personal names are found.

From this we know that the language of the people was Telugu, while the rulers, who were of the dynasty, spoke Prakrit. Telugu words appear in the anthology of poems (the Gathasaptashathi) collected by the first century BCE Satavahana King. Telugu speakers were probably the oldest peoples inhabiting the land between the and rivers. 500 CE - 1100 CE [ ] The first inscription that is entirely in Telugu corresponds to the second phase of Telugu history.

This inscription dated 575 CE was found in the and district region and is attributed to the. They broke with the prevailing fashion of using and introduced the tradition of writing royal proclamations in the local language.

During the next fifty years, Telugu inscriptions appeared in the neighboring Anantapuram and all the surrounding regions. The first available Telugu inscription in the coastal Andhra Pradesh comes from about 633 CE.

Ways by which we have gained knowledge about Sources of Ancient Indian History.(A)- Archaeological Sources(B)- Literary Sources(C)- Foreigners Account. These all constitute ‘The Sources of Indian History’. Ancient India: The Beginning. 9 lessons, 1h 20m. Sir how can we download your videos.

Around the same time, the Chalukya kings of Telangana also started using Telugu for inscriptions. [ ] Telugu was most exposed to the influence of Sanskrit, as opposed to Prakrit, during this period.

This period mainly corresponded to the advent of literature in Telugu. This literature was initially found in inscriptions and poetry in the courts of the rulers, and later in written works such as 's (1022 CE).

During the time of Nannayya, the literary language diverged from the popular language. This was also a period of phonetic changes in the spoken language. 1100 CE - 1400 CE [ ] The third phase is marked by further stylization and sophistication of the literary language.

Ketana (thirteenth century) in fact prohibited the use of spoken words in poetic works. This period also saw the beginning of rule in the Telugu speaking regions.

During this period the separation of from the common took place. Wrote his works in this script. 1400 CE - 1900 CE [ ] During the fourth phase, Telugu underwent a great deal of change (as did other Indian languages), progressing from to modern. The language of the Telangana region started to split into a distinct dialect due to Muslim influence: rule under the dynasty had been established earlier in the northern Deccan during the fourteenth century. South of the river ( region), however, the gained dominance from 1336 till the late 1600s, reaching its peak during the rule of in the sixteenth century, when Telugu literature experienced what is considered to be its. Padakavithapithamaha,, contributed many atcha (pristine) Telugu Padaalu to this great language.

In the latter half of the seventeenth century, Muslim rule extended further south, culminating in the establishment of the princely state of by the dynasty in 1724. This heralded an era of / influence on the Telugu language, especially among the people of. The effect is also felt in the prose of the early 19th century, as in the Kaifiyats. 1900 CE to date [ ] The period of the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries saw the influence of the and modern communication/printing press as an effect of the, especially in the areas that were part of the Presidency.

Literature from this time had a mix of classical and modern traditions and included works by scholars like Kandukuri Viresalingam and Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao. Since the 1940s, what was considered an elite literary form of the Telugu language has now spread to the common people with the introduction of like, and. This form of the language is also taught in schools as a standard. In the current decade the Telugu language, like other Indian languages, has undergone due to the increasing settlement of Telugu-speaking people abroad. Modern Telugu, although still retaining their dramatic quality, are linguistically separate from post- films. At present, a committee of scholars have approved a tag for Telugu based on its antiquity.

A final notification from the Government of India is awaited. References [ ] • ↑ Invalid tag; no text was provided for refs named APOnline •. Online webpage of The Deccan Herald. Deccan Herald.. Retrieved 2008-08-08.

(230 BC–AD 220) (200 BC–AD 300) (c. 50 BC) (185–73 BC) (180 BC–AD 10) (75–26 BC) (50 BC–AD 400) (AD 21–c. 130) (AD 35–405 ) (AD 60–240) (170–350) (210–340) (224–651) (230–360) (c. 600) (280–550) (345–525) (350–1000) (350–1100) (420–624) (475–767) (475–576) (489–632) (c. 500–1026) (543–753) (c.

700) (606–647) (618–841) (624–1075) (632–661) (650–1036) (661–750) (750–1174) (753–982) (800–1327) (850–1334) (942–1244) (973–1189) (1003–1320) (1040–1346) (1070–1230) (1078–1434) (1083–1323) (1102–1766) (675-1210) (1156–1184) (1187–1673) (c. • • • The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the; the advancement of civilisation from the to the eventual blending of the culture to form the; the rise of, and; the onset of a succession of for more than three millennia throughout various geographic areas of the subcontinent, including the growth of during the intertwined with Hindu powers; the advent of, resulting in the establishment of; and the subsequent that led to the and the creation of the. Considered a, the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilisation in South Asia. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE.

This civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the. The era saw the composition of the, the seminal texts of Hinduism, coalesce into, and social stratification based on. The Later Vedic Civilisation extended over the and much of the subcontinent, as well as witnessed the rise of major polities known as the.

In one of these kingdoms,, and propagated their philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE. Most of the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onwards and literature in the north and the in southern India started to flourish.

Originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries. During the, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the stands out. This period, witnessing a religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or '. During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion ( and ) spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Middle East and the. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia ().

The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the centred on that lasted for more than two centuries between the,, and. Saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the,,,,, and Empires. The conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia,, and in the 11th century. The early medieval period influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the and the were introduced. Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th century when the was founded in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turks; though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan as early as the 8th century. The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century.

This period also saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably,,, as well as, such as. The 15th century saw the advent of. The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the conquered most of the Indian subcontinent. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the, and to exercise control over large areas of the subcontinent. From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, large areas of India were annexed by the of the. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the, after which the of India were directly administered by the and witnessed a period of rapid development of infrastructure, economic decline and. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched with the leading party involved being the which was later joined by other organisations.

The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the all to one of the new states. See also: Chronology of India (1774–1836), in his (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into 'ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods'. World History James Mill's Periodisation ACMM Chronology of Indian History Early Complex Societes (3500–2000 BCE)? Ancient India Ancient Civilisations (2000–500 BCE) Hindu civilisations Early Vedic Period (c. 1750 – 1200 BCE) Middle Vedic Period (from 1200 BCE) Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE) Classical Civilisations (500 BCE-500 CE) Second urbanisation (c.

600–200 BCE) Disintegration and regional states (c. 200 BCE–300 CE) Classical India 'Golden Age' () (c. 320–650 CE) Post-classical age (500–1000 CE) Medieval India and Beginning of Islamic raids (c. 650–1100 CE) Transregional nomadic empires (1000–1500 CE) Muslim civilisations (north India) (1206–1526 CE) (south India) (1336–1646 CE) Modern age (1500–present) Modern India (1526–1707) British civilisations British rule (c. 1750 CE–1947) – Independent India Notes and references for table Notes Different periods are designated as 'classical Hinduism': • Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE 'pre-classical'. It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism (Smart distinguishes 'Brahmanism' from the Vedic religion, connecting 'Brahmanism' with the Upanishads. ), Jainism and Buddhism.

For Smart, the 'classical period' lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of 'classical Hinduism' and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India. • For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of 'Ascetic reformism', whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of 'classical Hinduism', since there is 'a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions'. • Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the 'Classical Period'. According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and 'personal enlightenment and transformation', which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time. • Khanna 2007, p.xvii • Khanna 2007, p.xvii • Misra 2004, p.194 • Kulke 2004, p.7 • Flood 1996, p.21 • Bentley • Khanna 2007, p.xvii • Flood 1996, p.21 • Stein • Smart 2003, p. 52–53 • Michaels 2004 • Muesse 2011 • Flood 1996, p. 21–22 • Thapar • Thapar • Thapar • Michaels 2004, p.39 • Michaels 2004, p.40 • Michaels 2004, p.41 • Smart 2003, p.

52, 83–86 • Smart 2003, p.52 • Michaels 2004, p.36 • Michaels 2004, p.38 • Muesse 2003, p.14 Sources • Bentley, Jerry H. (June 1996), 'Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History', The American Historical Review, 101 (3): 749–770,: • Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press • Khanna, Meenakshi (2007), Cultural History Of Medieval India, Berghahn Books • Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India, Routledge • Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press • Misra, Amalendu (2004), Identity and Religion: Foundations of Anti-Islamism in India, SAGE • Muesse, Mark William (2003), • Muesse, Mark W. (2011), The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction, Fortress Press • Smart, Ninian (2003), Godsdiensten van de wereld (The World's religions), Kampen: Uitgeverij Kok • Thapar, Romila (1977), A History of India.

Volume One, Penguin Books (1773–1836), in his (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into 'ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods', although this periodisation has also been criticised. Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to 'ruling dynasties and foreign invasions', neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.

The division into Ancient-Medieval-Modern periods overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests occurred gradually during which time many things came and went off, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on 'significant social and economic changes', which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers. Prehistoric era (until c.

3300 BCE) [ ] Stone Age [ ]. (6,000 BCE) writings of in, India. Archaeological evidence of in the Indian subcontinent is claimed to be as old as 78,000-74,000 years. Earlier hominids include from about 500,000 years ago.

Isolated remains of in Hathnora in the in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.

The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements and some of its major civilisations. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Palaeolithic site in the. Soanian sites are found in the across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal. The period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the in modern, India. The are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the man, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement in.

The carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the in India, to 7500 BCE. Neolithic agricultural cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, represented by the findings (7570–6200 BCE) in, findings (7000 BCE) in, and findings (7000–5000 BCE) in; and later in Southern India, spreading southwards and also northwards into around 1800 BCE.

The first urban civilisation of the region began with the. 'First urbanisation' (c. 3300 BCE–1500 BCE) [ ] Indus Valley Civilisation [ ].

One of the largest cities of Indus Valley Civilisation. The in the began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was centred on the and its tributaries which extended into the valley, the,, and south-eastern Afghanistan.

The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with and, was a in the Old World. It is also the most expansive in area and population. The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (,, and provinces) and Pakistan (,, and provinces). Historically part of, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilisations, along with and.

Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the subcontinent. The civilisation included urban centres such as,,,, and in modern-day India, as well as,, and in modern-day Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation.

During the of this civilisation, signs of a began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and isolated farms.

According to historian, 'the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones.' The Indian is attributed to this time, associated in the Doab region with the. Dravidian origins [ ]. Main articles:,,, and Linguists hypothesized that Dravidian-speaking people were spread throughout the before a series of Indo-Aryan migrations. In this view, the early is often identified as having been Dravidian.

Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers,, and as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation. Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language 'most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family'. Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis.

Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the 'fish' sign with the Dravidian word for fish 'min') but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book Deciphering the Indus Script. The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e.

Post-dating Harappan decline) stone allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification. While, surmised that the symbols represent a script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language.

Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption. While some scholars like J.

Bloch and believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian speaking area after the oldest parts of the were already composed. The population of has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages. Vedic period (c.

1500 BCE–600 BCE) [ ]. Early Vedic Period. The is named after the culture of north-west India, although other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is described in the texts of, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in.

The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the to the in this period. Vedic society [ ]. A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life. Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the and the upper.

Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of into the subcontinent from the north-west. The tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the. Many of the concepts of espoused later, like, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents. Early Vedic society is described in the, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE, in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent.

At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the in archaeological contexts. At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western plain.

It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India, but also eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure. During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into. In the 14th century BCE, the, between the tribal kingdoms of the, allied with other tribes of the Northwest, guided by the royal sage, and the () king, who defeats other Vedic tribes—leading to the emergence of the, first state level society during the Vedic period. Sanskritisation [ ]. Manuscript illustration of the. In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics and are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.

The Mahabharata remains, today, the longest single poem in the world. Historians formerly postulated an 'epic age' as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries.

For instance, the Mahabharata may have been based on a small-scale conflict (possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually 'transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets'. There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharata have any historical basis. The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.

Some even attempted to date the events using methods of which have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE. 'Second urbanisation' (c. 600 BCE–200 BCE) [ ] During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the movement formed, from which originated and. In the same period the first were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called 'Second urbanisation' started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain. The foundations for the Second Urbanisation were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the culture of the and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, 'several dozen' PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE in the culture.

The Central Ganges Plain, where gained prominence, forming the base of the, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE during the so-called 'Second urbanisation'. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. It 'was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar'. In this region the movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.

Mahajanapadas [ ]. The were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile, there were also a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of. 600 BCE to c.

300 BCE, withnessed the rise of Mahajanapadas, which were sixteen powerful and vast and. These Mahajanapadas evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from in the northwest to in the eastern part of the and included parts of the trans- region.

Ancient, like the, make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—,,,,,,,,,,, (or Machcha),,,, and —this period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the. Stupa built by the at, which served as the of, one of the world's earliest ().

Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. Early 'republics' or, such as the (or Vriji) confederation, centered in the city of, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the. This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries (e.g., ivory and carnelian carving), a system of weights,, and the introduction of writing in the form of and scripts. The language of the gentry at that time was, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as.

Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The life of Gautama Buddha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms. Upanishads and Shramana movements [ ]. The Buddha's cremation stupa, (Kushinara).

Around 800 BCE to 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest. Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as (conclusion of the ). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual.

Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death. Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. 549–477 BCE), proponent of, and (c.

563–483 BCE), founder of were the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of, and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a that ameliorated the extreme found in the religions. Around the same time, (the 24th in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe (c.

772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. Was the 1st Tirthankara. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement. Magadha dynasties [ ]. Coins during the Shishunaga dynasty of Magadha.

Magadha formed one of the sixteen (: 'Great Countries'). The core of the kingdom was the area of south of the; its first capital was (modern Rajgir) then (modern ). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and with the conquest of and respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the, and. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the where they are found listed along with the,, and Mujavats.

Magadha played an important role in the development of and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the and, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics,, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian '. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

The Hindu epic Mahabharata calls the first ruler of Magadha. Early sources, from the Buddhist, the and the Hindu, mentions Magadha being ruled by the for some 200 years, c. 600 BCE – 413 BCE.

King of the led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period,, the founder of, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom.

He attained enlightenment in, gave his first sermon in and the was held in. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the. The Surgeon Tess Gerritsen Ebook Torrent more. The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas, Mahapadma and his eight sons. The extended across much of northern India. Persians and Greeks in northwest South Asia [ ].

In 530 BCE, King of the Persian crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan). By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the north-western subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries.

During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece. Under Persian rule the famous city of became a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled. Persian ascendency in North-western South Asia ended with 's conquest of Persia in 327 BCE. By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent.

There he defeated in the (near modern-day, Pakistan) and conquered much of the. Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the of and the of. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern ) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer,, and after learning about the might of the, was convinced that it was better to return. The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent.

The region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture,, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of. Maurya Empire [ ]. At, 3rd century BCE. The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the and to the east into what is now. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by assisted by Chanakya () in (in modern ) when he overthrew the.

Chandragupta's son succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of (around modern day ) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.

Bindusara was succeeded by, whose reign lasted for around 37 years until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse and lead him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler,, was assassinated by to establish the. The and the are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society.

However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high quality steel called was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia. Sangam Period [ ]. Located in the tip of during the Sangam Period, ruled by, and the. During the Sangam period literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE.

During this period, three Tamil Dynasties, collectively known as the of:, and the ruled parts of southern India. The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars and culture of the Tamil people of this period. The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings, but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns. Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite few of them were even women. Classical to early medieval periods (c. 200 BCE–1200 CE) [ ].

During the rise of the and empires. The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the in the 6th century CE is referred to as the 'Classical' period of India. It can be divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period begins after the decline of the, and the corresponding rise of the, beginning with, from 230 BCE.

The (4th–6th century) is regarded as the 'Golden Age' of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India. During this period, is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE. Early classical period (c. 200 BCE–320 CE) [ ] Shunga Empire [ ]. Shunga royal family,, 1st century BCE.

The Shungas originated from, and controlled areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by, who overthrew the last. Its capital was, but later emperors, such as, also held court at, modern in Eastern. Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated; inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.

The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the of, of, the, and possibly the and. Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at, and the renowned Great Stupa. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of and was used to write the.

The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. This helped the empire flourish and gain power.

Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures [ ]. The, 1st century CE. The capital describes, among other donations, the gift of a with a relic of the, by Queen, the 'chief queen of the ruler of, satrap '. The Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures of the Indian subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. • The under (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of and beyond the, becoming a king shortly after his victory.

His territories covered and in modern Afghanistan and extended to the, with many tributaries to the south and east. The capital (modern ) prospered greatly under Menander's rule. The classical praises Menander, saying there was 'none equal to Milinda in all India'. Lasting for almost two centuries, the kingdom was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Indo-Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other.

• The were descended from the (Scythians) who migrated from southern to and to India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythian were defeated by the south Indian Emperor of the. Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by of the from eastern India in the 4th century. • The was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler.

They ruled parts of present-day, Pakistan, and northwestern India, during or slightly before the 1st century CE. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held (in the present province of Pakistan) as their residence and ruled from there, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between and. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of tribes who lived east of proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares, which means 'Holder of Glory', were even related.

• The have their origin with the of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, expanded into the region of present-day, where the mingling of and the gave birth to a hybrid culture under the Indo-Sassanids. Trade and Travels to India [ ].

The ivory statuette was found in the ruin of. It is thought to have come from in the Satavahana realm in the first half of the 1st century CE. It testifies to beginning around the 1st century BCE. • The in attracted traders from all over the Old World to India.

Early writings and Stone Age carvings of age obtained indicates that India's Southwest coastal port, in Kerala, had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to. Kerala was referred to as the land of spices or as the 'Spice Garden of India'. It was the place traders and exporters wanted to reach, including,, and others. • entered China through the in the 1st or 2nd century CE.

The interaction of cultures resulted in several Chinese travellers and monks to enter India. Most notable were,, and. These travellers wrote detailed accounts of the Indian Subcontinent, which includes the political and social aspects of the region. • Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with the economic activity and commerce as patrons entrust large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship, promotion of trading activities. Buddhism in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy. Indian merchants involved in spice trade took to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and became popular with the native inhabitants. • The followed by trading along the and the.

During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and that became the maritime trading power of the. • According to, later reported in 's, the of the Indian Ocean was first sailed by Eudoxus of in 118 or 116 BCE. Poseidonius said a shipwrecked sailor from India had been rescued in the Red Sea and taken to Ptolemy VIII in.

Strabo, whose Geography is the main surviving source of the story, was sceptical about its truth. Modern scholarship tends to consider it relatively credible. During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at ports such as (called by the Greeks).

Another Greek navigator,, is sometimes credited with discovering the monsoon wind route to India. He is sometimes conjectured to have been part of Eudoxus's expeditions. Satavahana Empire [ ]. Depiction of the in Kanishka's coinage,, 2nd century CE. The expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor,, about the middle of the 1st century CE.

The Kushans were possibly of tribe; one of five branches of the confederation. By the time of his grandson,, the empire spread to encompass much of, and then the northern parts of the at least as far as and near (Banaras). Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new majority. They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China. Historian said about Kanishka: He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism. The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and.

The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming and, which reached its peak during Kushan rule. Rowlinson commented: The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was. Classical period (c. 320–650 CE) [ ] Gupta Empire – Golden Age [ ]. The current structure of the dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.

Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was united under the Gupta Empire (c. This period has been called the Golden Age of India; and was marked by extensive achievements in,,,,,,,,, and that crystallised the elements of what is generally known as. The, a, originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs.

Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in India. The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting. The Gupta period produced scholars such as,,,, and who made great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers –,, and – brought much of India under their leadership.

Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka,, and. The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital. However, much of the and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north. Vakataka Dynasty [ ]. The are 30 Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas.

The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of and in the north to the in the south as well as from the in the western to the edges of in the east. They were the most important successors of the in the and contemporaneous with the in northern India. The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature.

They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of (a ) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor,. Kamarupa Kingdom [ ]. Ruins 's 4th-century mentions Kamarupa () and (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire.

Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley,, parts of and, at times and parts of. Ruled by three dynasties (c.

350–650 CE), (c. 655–900 CE) and (c.

900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day (), Tezpur () and () respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from, an immigrant from. In the reign of the Varman king, (c.

600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller visited the and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c.

1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120 – 1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155 – 1255 CE) dynasties. The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the. Pallava Dynasty [ ]. The (a ) at built.

The, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the of the, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the of the. The Pallava reign saw the first Sankrit inscriptions in a script called. Early Pallavas had different connexions to countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in, and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets.

The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic and sculpture style of. Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of (571 – 630 CE) and (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the and northern parts of the region for about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century. Kadamba Dynasty [ ].

Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top,. Kadambas originated from, was founded by in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers.

King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of, a notable ruler with whom even the kings of of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the and the empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties known as the, and. Alchon Huns [ ]. Representing with a worshipper (probably ), 4th–6th century CE.

The inscription in cursive reads: ', and '.. The Indo-Hephthalites (or Alchon Huns) were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity period. The established themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader, they overran Northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Toramana's son, a Hindu, moved up to near to the east and to central India.

Narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned. The Huns were defeated by alliance of Indian rulers, (Great King) of Malwa and Gupta Emperor in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society. Empire of Harsha [ ].

Coin of, circa 606-647 CE. After the downfall of the prior in the middle of the 6th century, reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor at an assembly in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 years old. At the height of his power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East till, and South until; and eventually made (in present state) his capital, and ruled till 647 CE.

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from worship. The Chinese traveller visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.

His biography ('Deeds of Harsha') written by Sanskrit poet, describes his association with Thanesar, besides mentioning the defence wall, a moat and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion). Early medieval period (c.

650–1200 CE) [ ]. With surrounding the Kunda (tank), was built by of in 1026 CE.

It is one of the finest example of. Early began after the end of the in the 6th century CE.

This period also covers the 'Late Classical Age' of Hinduism, which began after the end of the, and the collapse of the in the 7th century CE; the beginning of Imperial, leading to the; and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the in Northern India and the end of the with the death of in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the in the south around the 17th century. From the fifth century to the thirteenth, sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of, or more commonly, and expanded in royal courts. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. North-Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the invasion, who followed their own religions at the beginning such as, but later. 's invasion of (modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as.

In the 7th century CE, formulated his school of philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the.

His dialectical success against the Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian, who reports that Kumārila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others. In the 8th century, travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doctrine of, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the main characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism.

He was a critic of both Buddhism and Minamsa school of Hinduism; and founded (monasteries), in the four corners of the Indian subcontinent for the spread and development of Advaita Vedanta. Ronald Inden writes that by the 8th century CE symbols of Hindu gods 'replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship'. Although Buddhism did not disappear from India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism's position within the sociopolitical context and helped make possible its decline. Emperor Harsha of succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His empire collapsed after his death.

The Triangle was the focal point of empires — the of, the of Malwa, and the of Bengal. From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the of Malwa, the of Bengal, and the of the Deccan. The would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the of Malwa, the of, the of, the of, and the of. These were some of the earliest. One Rajput of the clan,, was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Turkic sultanates.

While Rajput dynasty is credited for the Temple Complex, famous for their -style architectural symbolism and their. The emerged as a major power during the reign of and who successfully and in the 11th century. 724 CE–760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 CE until 1003, and was followed. In his credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia. The dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in, the rose to power; noted for the advancement of, most notable being and, as well as being patrons of art and literature.

Chalukya Empire [ ]. Image inside the. The complex is an example of, especially, which dates from the 6th century CE. The ruled large parts of and between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the 'Badami Chalukyas', ruled from Vatapi (modern ) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the kingdom of and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of.

The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of and a golden age in the history of. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the and the rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called 'Chalukyan architecture'. The ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from between 970 and 1190.

The of Gujarat were a branch of the Chalukyas. Their capital at Anhilwara (modern ) was one of the largest cities in Classical India, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE. Rashtrakuta Empire [ ]. Is one of the largest ancient temples located in. Founded by around 753, the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at for almost two centuries. At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.

And were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an author and wrote, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora.

Other important contributions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.

The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who lived after him. The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters, who wrote in a variety of languages from Sanskrit to the.

Pala Empire [ ]. Landscape of university ruins, the seating and meditation area. Established by Emperor. The was founded.

It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of 's. The Palas were followers of the and schools of Buddhism, they also patronised and. The Pala, meaning 'protector', was used as an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. The empire reached its peak under and.

Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest. The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal in many ways.

Dharmapala founded the and revived Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.

The Palas also built many. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and.

Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. The Arab merchant Suleiman notes the enormity of the Pala army in his memoirs. Chola Empire [ ].

Entrance Gopurams,. Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. And established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya. Under and his successors,, and the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.

Rajendra Chola I's navies went even further, occupying the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam, the, the (Laccadive) islands,, and the in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China. They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east.

And his equally distinguished son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power. Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India. Western Chalukya Empire [ ]. Was built circa 1112 CE by Mahadeva, a commander ( dandanayaka) in the army of the King.

The temple is an example of. The ruled most of the,, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Vast areas between the in the north and in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the, the, the and the, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century. The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire.

Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the at, the at Kuruvatti, the at Bagali and the at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of, and like the philosopher and statesman and the great mathematician. Early Islamic intrusions into the Indian subcontinent [ ]. See also: The early Islamic literature indicates that the conquest of the Indian subcontinent was one of the very early ambitions of the Muslims, though it was recognised as a particularly difficult one.

After conquering Persia, the Arab incorporated parts of what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan around 720. The book chronicles the 's period, following the demise of the and the ascent of to the throne, down to the Arab conquest by in the early 8th century CE, by defeating the last Hindu monarch of,.

The was first attacked by Muslim Turkic invader and repeatedly demolished by successive Muslim invaders, each time being rebuilt by Hindu rulers. In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern-day Pakistan for the Umayyad Empire, incorporating it as the 'As-Sindh' province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern in Sindh, Pakistan.

After several incursions, the Hindu kings east of Indus defeated the Arabs during the, halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan. The south Indian under, of the and of the dynasty repulsed the Arab invaders in the early 8th century. Several Islamic kingdoms () under both foreign and, newly converted, rulers were established across the Northwestern subcontinent (Afghanistan and Pakistan) over a period of a few centuries. From the 10th century, Sindh was ruled by the Rajput, and later, in the mid-13th century by the Rajput. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. In the early 11th century raided mainly the north-western parts of the Indian sub-continent 17 times, but he did not seek to establish 'permanent dominion' in those areas.

While of, who is said to have defeated and killed the general in the early 11th century. Hindu Shahi [ ]. Coins of the Hindu Shahis, which later inspired coins in the. The Kabul Shahis ruled the and (modern-day Pakistan and ) from the decline of the in the 3rd century to the early 9th century CE. The Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the Shahis and the Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.

The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE to 670 CE, when the capitals were located in and Kabul, and later, also known as Hund, for its new capital. The Hindu Shahis under, is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against the in the modern-day eastern and region. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of both in the reign of and in that of his son, which initiated the Ghaznavid and Shahi struggles. Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity. Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more. Jayapala, however, lost control of the entire region between the and.

Before Jayapala's struggle began, he had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus. When Jayapala went to the, his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable host of foot soldiers. According to: The two armies having met on the confines of, ascended a hill to view the forces of Jayapala, which appeared in extent like the boundless ocean, and in number like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness. But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf about to attack a flock of sheep: calling, therefore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to glory, and issued to each his commands. His soldiers, though few in number, were divided into squadrons of five hundred men each, which were directed to attack successively, one particular point of the Hindoo line, so that it might continually have to encounter fresh troops.

However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni. In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the north of the, Jayapala once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day. After the, he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahis. Jayapala was succeeded by his son, who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahis took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Hills.

Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526 CE) [ ]. Main articles:,, and Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the sub-continent, one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia. In that sense, the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium. What does however, make the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs. They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes.

This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was mixed in nature, though different from both the ancient Indian culture and later westernised modern Indian culture. At the same time it must be noted that overwhelming majority of Muslims in India are Indian natives converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures. The growth of Muslim dominion resulted in the destruction and desecration of politically important temples of enemy states, cases of forced conversions to Islam, payment of tax, and loss of life for the non-Muslim population.

Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests [ ]. Main articles: and Before the Muslim expeditions into the Indian subcontinent, much of North and West India was ruled. The Rajputs and the south Indian were successful in containing Arab Muslim expansion during the; but later, Central Asian Muslim Turks were able to break through the Rajput defence into the Northern Indian heartland. However, the Rajputs held out against the Muslim Turkic empires for several centuries. They earned a reputation of fighting battles obeying a code of chivalrous conduct rooted in a strong adherence to tradition and Chi. The Rajput established its control over and in the 10th century.

The most famous ruler of this dynasty was. His reign marked one of the most significant moments in Indian history; his battles with Muslim Sultan,. In the, Ghori was defeated with heavy losses. However, the saw the Rajput army eventually defeated, laying the foundation of Muslim rule in mainland India. The under defeated and captured with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack for a few hundred years.

The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as and north into the. The established themselves at, and built the fortress which still stands there. During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and expanded his kingdom at the expense of the of and. The next great Rajput ruler, of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer the much sought after prize of the Muslim rulers of the time,.

But, his defeat in the consolidated the new in India. However, of Mewar, a 16th-century Rajput ruler, firmly resisted the Mughals. Sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the. The Chittorgarh Fort is the largest in India; it is a symbol for Rajput resistance. Chittorgarh Fort was sacked three times during the 15th and 16th centuries by Muslim armies.

In 1303 defeated Rana Ratan Singh; in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the defeated Bikramjeet Singh; and in 1567 defeated Maharana, who left the fort and founded. Each time the men fought bravely rushing out of the fort walls charging the enemy, but lost. Following these defeats, was committed thrice by many of the wives and children of the Rajput soldiers who died in battles at Chittorgarh Fort. The first time, this was led by wife of Rana Rattan Singh who was killed in the battle in 1303, and later by in 1537. Delhi Sultanate [ ]. Is the world's tallest brick, commenced by of the.

The historian Dr. Tripathi noted: The history of Muslim sovereignty in India begins properly speaking with. The was a Muslim based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of, Turko-Indian and origins. It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th century to the early 16th century. The context behind the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the continent, including the whole of southern and: the influx of nomadic from the. This can be traced back to the 9th century, when the Islamic began fragmenting in the, where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim nomadic from the Central Asian steppes, and raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called.

Soon, to and becoming. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the, establishing from to, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent. (Warangal Gate) in ruins; one of the many temple complexes destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings. The subsequent of managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become. However, they were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance.

The resulting 'Indo-Muslim' fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of (literally meaning 'horde' or 'camp' in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic with immigrants speaking,, and under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, (1236–1240).

However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent. During the Delhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis between Indian civilization and. The latter was a civilization, with a and society, and wide-ranging international networks, including social and economic networks, spanning large parts of, leading to escalating circulation of goods, peoples, technologies and ideas.

While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society. In the 13th century, the had most of and. However, the were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate. A major factor in their success was their Turkic slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic warfare as the, as a result of having similar Central Asian roots. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them. A conqueror in Central Asia, (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.

The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights.

He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the, scholars, and the 'other Muslims' (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi revived briefly under the Lodi Dynasty, but it was a shadow of the former. Bhakti movement and Sikhism [ ]. The (above) was composed.

The major narrative in the text is on (24 of Hindu god ),,, the Hindu warrior goddess and a story of in. The refers to the devotional trend that emerged in medieval and later revolutionised in. It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.

• The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as (Vishnu), (Shiva), (Shakti goddesses), and. The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic of to absolute of. • Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of, the first Guru, and the ten successive. After the death of the tenth Guru,, the Sikh scripture,, became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs. Vijayanagara Empire [ ]. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style.

The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician founded the famous in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like, and in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.

The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.

Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the (1565). Regional powers [ ]. Built by in 's capital, is one of the earliest pavilion of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent.

For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the, and in Southern India by the, which originated as a political heir of the,, and the. However, there were other regional powers present as well. The successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate; and extended their rule from in the north to in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.

In the north, the remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. Their power reached its zenith under, during whose time Rajput armies were constantly victorious against the Sultanate armies. In the south, the was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for the Vijayanagara. In the early 16th century of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power, after which the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed. It was established either by a Brahman convert or patronised by a Brahman and from that source it was given the name Bahmani.

In the early 16th century, it collapsed and split into five small. In the East, the remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture.

Under, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower in the north to the in the south. In, the was a major power for six centuries; led by, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the during the. Further east in Northeastern India was the, which ruled from their seat of power at and developed a sophisticated Hindu culture. Early modern period (c. 1526 – 1858 CE) [ ] The of Indian history is dated from 1526–1858 CE, corresponding to the rise and fall of the.

This period witnessed the cultural synthesis of Hindu and Muslim elements reflected in; the growth of and imperial powers over vast regions of the Indian subcontinent with the decline of the Mughals; and came to an end when the was founded. Mughal Empire [ ]. Is a built by to house the tomb of his favorite wife,. In 1526,, a descendant of and from (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the and established the, which at its zenith covered modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. However, his son was defeated by the Afghan warrior in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to.

After Sher Shah's death, his son and his Hindu general had established secular rule in North India from till 1556. After winning, 's forces defeated Hemu in the on 6 November 1556. The famous emperor, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus.

Akbar declared 'Amari' or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique and.

Akbar married a princess,, and they had a son,, who was part-Mughal and part-Rajput, as were future Mughal emperors. Jahangir more or less followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of was the golden age of Mughal architecture.

He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort. The Mughal era is considered to be 'India's last golden age'. It was the, and surpassed to be become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the, and the world leader in manufacturing, producing 25% of global industrial output. The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal that intensified agricultural production, a economy that began moving towards industrial, and a relatively high degree of for its time. The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under. Historian wrote, 'All seemed to have been gained by Aurangzeb now, but in reality all was lost.' The same was echoed by: 'The Deccan proved to be the graveyard not only of Aurangzeb's body but also of his empire'.

Aurangazeb is considered India's most controversial king. He was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed, employing significantly more in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and opposing bigotry against Hindus and. However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing brutality and centralisation, which may have played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively less pluralistic policies on the general population, which may have inflamed the majority Hindu population. The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from, and.

During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the Maratha general of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army.

This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While under ruler, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city taking with them the two great silver doors of the entrance of the famous Taj Mahal; which were then melted down by Suraj Mal in 1763.

In 1739,, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the.

Mughal rule were further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; led the against Mughal religious oppression; of, and revolted; and, of Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the. The was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated during the, also called the 1857 War of Independence, and the remains of the empire were formally taken over by the British while the let the assume direct control of India in the form of the new. Maratha Empire [ ]. Palace fort in, seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818. In the early 18th century the extended suzerainty over the Indian subcontinent. Under the Peshwas, the consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia.

The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending in India. The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by, a aristocrat of the clan who was determined to establish. Described Shivaji as 'the last great constructive genius and nation builder that the Hindu race has produced'. However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa.

Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I 'may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire.' By the early 18th century, the Maratha Kingdom had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the (prime ministers). In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the.

The Marathas continued against the,, and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. The empire at its peak stretched from in the south, to (modern-day, ) in the north, and in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the (1761). However, the within a decade under Peshwa.

Under Madhavrao I, semi-autonomy was given to the strongest of the knights, which created a confederacy of Maratha states. They became known as the of, the of and, the of and, the of and the of and. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in, which led to the, resulting in a Maratha victory. The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat in the and (1805-1818), which left the East India Company in control of most of India. As noted by Charles Metcalfe, one of the ablest of the British Officials in India and later acting Governor-General, wrote in 1806: India contains no more than two great powers, British and Mahratta, and every other state acknowledges the influence of one or the other.

Every inch that we recede will be occupied by them. The Marathas also developed a potent circa 1660s, which at its peak, dominated the territorial waters of the western coast of India from to. For a brief period, the Maratha Navy also established its base at the in the. It would engage in attacking the,,, and Naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambitions. The Maratha Navy dominated till around the 1730s, was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist by 1818.

Sikh Empire [ ]. In 1835, Maharaja donated 1 tonne of gold for plating the 's dome.

The, ruled by members of the, was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian Subcontinent. The empire, based around the, existed from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the, under the leadership of (1780–1839) from an array of autonomous. Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated many parts of northern India into an empire.

He primarily used his highly disciplined that he trained and equipped with modern military technologies and technique. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated the Afghan armies and successfully ended the. In stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Derajat to his empire.

At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the in the west, to in the north, to in the south, running along Sutlej river to in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to the conflict with the British East India Company. The hard-fought and marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire; making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

Other kingdoms [ ]. In, one of the world's largest private residences. Built by, the ruler of the of. There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts of India in the later medieval period prior to the British occupation.

However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the. The rule of which established the in southern India in around 1400 CE by was interrupted by and his son in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought a sometimes against the combined forces of the British and, but mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French.

The had become the de facto rulers of following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried from 1741 to 1748 as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. Hyderabad was founded by the of in 1591.

Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948.

Both and became in British India in 1799 and 1798 respectively. The 18th century saw the whole of virtually subdued by the Marathas. The distracted the from 1807 to 1809, but afterwards of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas.

By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha ruler of gave up the district of to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947.

The contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being,, and. After the in 1846, under the terms of the, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second largest princely state in British India, was created by the. After the fall of the, states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished till the advent of the British. Around the 18th century, the was formed by rulers. European exploration and colonialism [ ]. In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.

The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in,, and. Goa became the main Portuguese base until it was.

The next to arrive, with their main base in. They established ports in. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the by the, during the.

The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India. In the words of the noted historian, Professor: A disaster of the first magnitude for the Dutch, the shattered for all time their dream of the conquest of Kerala. The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the —who set up in the west coast port of in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India.

Although these continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of and, and the Portuguese colonies of,. Expansion of the British East India Company rule in India [ ]. Map of India in 1857 at the end of Company rule The, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits.

This led to the on 23 June 1757, in which the of the East India Company, led by, defeated the French-supported Nawab's forces. This was the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.

This was combined with British victories over the French at, and that, along with wider, reduced French influence in India. The British East India Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal.

After the in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from Mughal Emperor; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed most of India. The East India Company monopolised the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the which introduced a -like structure in Bengal, often with and set in place. As a result of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive control over the entire of India. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; the (1766–1799) and later the (1772–1818) led to control of vast regions of India. Of first fell to and then to the British after the in 1826., the, and were annexed after the in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the to the of and thereby became a princely state.

The border dispute between and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the of 1814–16 and brought the defeated under British influence. In 1854, was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the or native states of the Hindu and the Muslim. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian subcontinent. Their policy was sometimes summed up as, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.

Indian indenture system [ ]. Main article: The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations.

It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of large, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. And ) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. ), as well as the growth of and population. Modern period and independence (after c.

1850 CE) [ ] The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences [ ]. Execution of mutineers by by the British. The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the Company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition; key mutineer being.

In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops, and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the, and felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance.

Rebel leaders such as and the belonged to this group. After the outbreak of the mutiny in, the rebels very quickly reached. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the and (Oudh). Most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence. However, East India Company mobilised rapidly, with the assistance of friendly. But, it took the British remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion.

Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued by the British. In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Company to the, which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown controlled the Company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families.

There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48. British Raj (c.

1858 – 1947) [ ]. Was dedicated to the memory of the in, which served as the capital of British-held territories in India until 1911. After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes.

The came into being. In education, had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English as the medium of instruction.

By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated. The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world. The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports. However, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.

In 1905, into a largely Hindu western half and 'Eastern Bengal and Assam', a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be for efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent 'divide and rule' strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms.

The provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.

Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus. The and (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a 'cultural' organisation. Sikhs founded the in 1920.

However, the largest and oldest political party, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics. Hindu Renaissance [ ]. Was a key figure in introducing and in the, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion. The refers to a social reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in the of the Indian subcontinent during the period of dominated.

The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with (1772–1833) and ended with (1861–1941), although many stalwarts thereafter continued to embody particular aspects of the unique intellectual and creative output of the region. Nineteenth century Bengal was a unique blend of religious and social reformers, scholars, literary giants, journalists, patriotic orators, and scientists, all merging to form the image of a renaissance, and marked the transition from the 'medieval' to the 'modern'.

During this period, Bengal witnessed an awakening that is in some way similar to the. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the system, the, and religion.

One of the earliest that emerged during this time was the movement, which espoused and as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus. It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.

Victims of the in. The famine ultimately covered an area of 670,000 square kilometres (257,000 sq mi) and caused distress to a population totalling 58,500,000. The death toll from this famine is estimated to be in the range of 5.5 million people. During and the,, often attributed to and failed policies of British colonial government, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died, the where up to 10 million people died, the in which 1.25 to 10 million people died, and the where up to 3.8 million people died. During the period of British rule, the and occurred in areas of India largely outside of British control and may have killed 11 million people each. The in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India. Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.

The Indian independence movement [ ]. See also: and The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule 52% of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the that accounted for 48% of the area. One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism, leading Indians to seek first 'self-rule' and later 'complete independence'.

However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a 'clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests', 'racial discriminations', and 'the revelation of India's past'. Leader of the, and, the founder of (Bombay, 1944). The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of to advise the British in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils.

The British built a large, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as from Nepal and. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions., an Indian nationalist leader, declared as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence 'Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it' became the source of inspiration for Indians.

Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like and, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the involving the boycott of all imported items and the use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as. Under them, India's three big provinces –, and shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like and, on the other hand wanted reform within the framework of British rule.

Download Zynga Cafe World Game. The British themselves adopted a 'carrot and stick' approach in recognition of India's support during the First World War and in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.

From 1920 leaders such as began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like, and. However, against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle. The was a major success in this regard. World War II [ ]. Main article: During the Second World War (1939–1945), was controlled by the United Kingdom, with the British holding territories in India including over five hundred autonomous; officially declared war on in September 1939.

The British Raj, as part of the, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the. Additionally, several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign during the War. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the.

Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the,, against the Italians in, in against the, in the. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 Indian soldiers (including those from modern day,, and ) died in World War II.

The, led by, and, denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government was ready for this move. It immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the violent reaction of Congress supporters.

Key leaders were kept in prison until June 1945, although Gandhi was released in May 1944 because of his health. Congress, with its leaders incommunicado, played little role on the home front. The rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities. (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence.

The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the; however, it was Japan that helped him set up the (INA) which fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma. Bose also headed the (or ), a government-in-exile based in Singapore. The government of had its own currency, court, and civil code; and in the eyes of some Indians its existence gave a greater legitimacy to the independence struggle against the British. By 1942, neighbouring was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as in. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the in June and from on 3 July 1944.

The region of Bengal in India. After World War II (c. 1946 – 1947) [ ] In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with in in February 1946, followed by others in,, and. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India and in eight of the eleven provinces Congress candidates won.

Dead and wounded after the ', which developed into pitched battles as and mobs rioted across in 1946, the year before independence. Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an. Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership. Muslim League leader proclaimed 16 August 1946 as, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the '. The communal violence spread to (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), in in the (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to in March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.

Independence and partition (c. 1947–present) [ ]. Main articles:,,, and The territories gained independence in 1947, after being into the and.

Following the controversial division of pre-partition and, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 dead. Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively). In 1971,, formerly and, seceded from Pakistan. Historiography [ ] is the study of the history and methodology of the discipline of history. The term historiography also denotes a body of historical work on a specialised topic.

In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common 'Orientalist' approach, with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship. The 'Cambridge School', led by Anil Seal, Gordon Johnson, Richard Gordon, and David A. Washbrook, downplays ideology. However, this school of historiography is criticised for western bias. The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics.

It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical events. This school of historiography has received criticism for. The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends.

Again, the Marxists are accused of being 'too much' ideologically influenced. The 'subaltern school', was begun in the 1980s by and. It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to 'history from below', looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school. More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their demands for ('Hinduness') in Indian society. This school of thought is still in the process of development. In March 2012,, professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Studies at, authored in her book 'India: A Sacred Geography', that idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the Mughals and it wasn't just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or racial.

See also [ ].